Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution

For the theory in Maoism, see cultural revolution.

Poster from the time of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.

The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (GPCR) was a cultural revolution launched by Mao Zedong and the Communist Party of China in May 1966. It was a historic movement that reinvigorated the socialist revolution in China, empowering the masses to combat revisionism, capitalist influences, and bureaucratic elitism. Continuing until Mao’s death in September 1976, the GPCR aimed to ensure that China remained on the path to socialism by mobilizing workers, peasants, and youth to challenge counter-revolutionary elements within the Party and society. It sought to create a new socialist culture by breaking with feudal traditions, capitalist ideologies, and cultural legacies rooted in China’s past, while fostering mass participation in the revolutionary process.

The example of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution led to the development of the corresponding theory in the modern ideology of Marxism–Leninism–Maoism.

No matter where they are, in Peking or anywhere in China, I will give enthusiastic support to all who take an attitude similar to yours in the Cultural Revolution movement. Another thing, while supporting you, at the same time we ask you to pay attention to uniting with all who can be united with. As for those who have committed serious mistakes, after their mistakes have been pointed out you should offer them a way out of their difficulties by giving them work to do, and enabling them to correct their mistakes and become new men. Marx said: the proletariat must emancipate not only itself but all mankind. If it cannot emancipate all mankind, then the proletariat itself will not be able to achieve final emancipation. Will comrades please pay attention to this truth too. —Mao Zedong, “A Letter To The Red Guards Of Tsinghua University Middle School”

Background and revolutionary necessity

The GPCR was a response to the growing threat of revisionism within the CPC following the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. After the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962), a bold initiative to industrialize and collectivize agriculture, China faced economic challenges that led some Party leaders, such as Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, to implement reforms emphasizing productivity and market-oriented incentives. Mao Zedong saw these reforms as a dangerous slide toward capitalism, mirroring the revisionist path taken by the Soviet Union under Khrushchev. Mao also identified the emergence of a bureaucratic elite within the Party, disconnected from the masses, as a threat to the socialist project.

By the early 1960s, Mao recognized that traditional cultural values, rooted in China’s feudal past, were reinforcing class hierarchies and capitalist tendencies. These cultural traditions, particularly those influenced by Confucianism, were seen as perpetuating the hierarchical social structures typical of the Asiatic mode of production, where village communities were subordinate to a despotic state. Mao believed that a new revolution was essential to rekindle the revolutionary spirit among the masses, particularly the youth, and to safeguard China’s socialist future. The GPCR was formally launched on May 16, 1966, with the issuance of the “May 16 Circular” by the CCP Central Committee, which called for a mass struggle against those within the Party, government, and cultural institutions who were promoting capitalist and revisionist ideas.

The following conditions are considered to have necessitated the GPCR:

• Economic reforms post-Great Leap Forward that prioritized productivity over socialist principles, threatening to restore capitalism.

• The Soviet Union’s revisionist policies under Khrushchev, which Mao saw as a betrayal of Marxism-Leninism and a warning for China.

• The persistence of feudal cultural practices and educational systems that perpetuated class divisions and hindered socialist progress, including Confucian traditions rooted in China’s Asiatic past that reinforced hierarchical social relations.

Key events and phases

The GPCR unfolded over a decade, marked by mass mobilization, ideological campaigns, and the transformation of Chinese society. It progressed through several phases, each reflecting the revolutionary energy of the masses and the CCP’s commitment to socialist principles.

Early phase (1966-1968): mass mobilization and the red guards

The GPCR gained momentum in the summer of 1966 when Mao encouraged students to form Red Guard units—youth organizations tasked with challenging authority figures and the “Four Olds”: old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits. On August 18, 1966, Mao addressed over a million Red Guards in Tiananmen Square, affirming their role as the vanguard of the revolution.

Red guard contributions

Main article: Red Guards (China)

The Red Guards targeted teachers, intellectuals, and Party officials who were promoting capitalist ideas, holding public criticism sessions to expose and rectify their errors. They also closed schools and universities to focus on revolutionary education.

Cultural renewal

The Red Guards dismantled feudal and capitalist cultural elements, such as Confucian temples and traditional texts, to pave the way for a new socialist culture.

A significant aspect of this cultural renewal was the deliberate suppression of Confucian traditions, which were seen as remnants of China’s Asiatic past. Confucianism, with its emphasis on hierarchical social relations, filial piety, and traditional rituals, was viewed as reinforcing class divisions and perpetuating the old social order, which conflicted with the egalitarian goals of socialism.

The Red Guards’ actions included the destruction of Confucian texts, echoing historical precedents in China’s Asiatic past, such as the “bonfire of the books” ordered by Chin Shih Huang-ti in 213 BC. Chin Shih Huang-ti, the first emperor of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), had sought to erase Confucian and other scholarly works to consolidate his centralized authority, a method the Cultural Revolution adopted to break with cultural traditions that upheld the hierarchical structures of the Asiatic mode of production. For example, in November 1966, the Red Guards restructured the Confucian Temple in Qufu to align with revolutionary values, aiming to eliminate its influence as a symbol of the old order.

Purge of revisionists

High-ranking officials, including Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, were removed from power. Liu was expelled from the Party in 1968 and died in custody in 1969, while Deng was sent to a rural factory to reconnect with the masses.

Middle phase (1968-1971): consolidating revolutionary gains

By 1968, the GPCR faced challenges as Red Guard factions clashed over ideological differences, leading to temporary disorder. Mao, seeking to consolidate the revolution’s gains, called on the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) to restore unity. In July 1968, he disbanded the Red Guards and launched the “Down to the Countryside Movement,” sending urban youth to rural areas to learn from the peasantry and strengthen the worker-peasant alliance. This phase also saw continued efforts to suppress cultural traditions, particularly in rural areas where village communities, historically shaped by the Asiatic mode, had relied on Confucian principles to govern social interactions.

Later phase (1971-1976): sustaining the revolutionary spirit

The later years of the GPCR focused on sustaining revolutionary momentum while addressing internal challenges. In 1971, Lin Biao, Mao’s designated successor, died in a plane crash after allegedly attempting a coup—an event known as the Lin Biao Incident. This incident exposed counter-revolutionary elements within the military, prompting a renewed focus on ideological purity. During this phase, the movement continued to target cultural elements rooted in China’s Asiatic traditions, aiming to replace them with a socialist culture that emphasized collective action and class struggle.

Impact on Chinese society and politics

The GPCR had a transformative impact on Chinese society, politics, and culture, advancing the socialist project by empowering the masses and breaking with feudal, capitalist, and Asiatic traditions.

Key Revolutionary Achievements

Education: Shifted focus to revolutionary education, training a generation in socialist values.

Culture: Created a new socialist culture by breaking with feudal traditions and Asiatic cultural legacies, such as Confucianism, through the destruction of texts and symbols that reinforced hierarchical social structures.

Politics: Empowered the masses through revolutionary committees, reducing bureaucratic elitism, though the movement’s reliance on state-led campaigns reflected the influence of the Asiatic mode’s historical legacy of centralized governance.

Social Equality: Improved rural healthcare and education, and advanced gender equality, while disrupting traditional practices in village communities that had perpetuated class divisions.

Mass Mobilization: Demonstrated the power of the proletariat and peasantry to shape history, particularly through the radical cultural transformations that sought to redefine China’s cultural identity.

Social and cultural impact of suppressing Asiatic traditions

The GPCR’s efforts to suppress cultural traditions had a profound impact on Chinese society. The destruction of Confucian texts and symbols weakened the cultural foundations of the old order, particularly in rural areas where village communities had historically relied on Confucian principles to govern social interactions. This radical break with tradition disrupted long-standing cultural practices, creating tensions, particularly among older generations who resisted the erasure of cultural practices that had defined Chinese identity for centuries. However, it also fostered a cultural environment conducive to socialist development, where the masses could embrace revolutionary ideals over historical legacies, though the reliance on state-led campaigns to achieve this goal reflected the influence of the Asiatic mode’s historical tradition of centralized control.

Legacy and revolutionary significance

The GPCR stands as a monumental chapter in the history of socialism, illustrating the transformative power of the masses and the enduring relevance of Mao Zedong’s revolutionary vision. Its engagement with China’s Asiatic traditions, particularly through the suppression of Confucian influences, highlights the movement’s dual nature: while it sought to break with the hierarchical structures of the Asiatic mode of production, it also drew on historical precedents like Chin Shih Huang-ti’s cultural purge to legitimize its actions. The GPCR’s efforts to create a new socialist culture by erasing cultural legacies rooted in China’s Asiatic past reshaped Chinese society, though it also revealed the challenges of overcoming the deep-rooted influence of these traditions in the pursuit of socialist transformation.

See also

• Cultural revolution (Soviet Union)
• Ideological and Cultural Revolution